Fighting for a Country that Fought Their Existence

By Catherine Cecil

Irvin and Zouie Little Thunder

Zouie Little Thunder: January 28, 1922 – July 29, 1978

Irvin Stephen Little Thunder: May 19, 1918 – November 22, 1986

Lydia Murray Little Thunderhttps://www.findagrave.com/memorial/68876424/lydia-grace-little_thunder — *Lydia Murray Little Thunder*
*https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/68876424/lydia-grace-little_thunder*

In a reflection on her upbringing, Irvin Little Thunder’s older sister, Etta, remembered that “our grandparents, Shares His Tobacco and Anpo Win, and our parents, Frank and Lydia Little Thunder, began planting seeds in the soils of our minds and hearts…It was important to them that these seeds rooted firmly into the fibers of our souls. They were good planters. The seeds did grow. The seeds they so carefully planted were seeds of love, respect, and courage.”[1] The fruition of these seeds can be seen in the resilience of family members Irvin and Zouie Little Thunder.

*Frank Little Thunder https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/68876563/frank-little_thunder*

In 1918, Irvin Little Thunder was born on the Rosebud Reservation to his father, Frank, and mother, Lydia. Irvin was one of nine siblings.[2] In 1929, Irvin’s sister Rosalie Little Thunder was born on January 21. Just four days later, Irvin’s mother passed away, likely from complications of the birth of her last child.[3] Rosalie passed away later in 1929; Irvin was ten years old when he lost his sister and mother.[4]

Two years after his mother’s death, Irvin started attending the St. Francis Mission Boarding School. He attended from 1931[5] until September of 1937 when he was 19 years old and finished the eleventh grade.[6]

At the same time, the woman who would later marry Irvin also attended St. Francis. Zouie Kills the Enemy was also navigating her childhood on the Rosebud Reservation. She was born on January 28, 1922, to Mark and Lucille Kills the Enemy. Zouie grew up the youngest of her siblings, William, Phoebe, and Fanny.[7] Zouie started attending the St. Francis school at age 6, a much younger age than Irvin.[8] She would continue to reside at the boarding school until 1942, when she was twenty years old, and likely received her high school degree.[9]

While it is unclear if they knew each other at St. Francis, it is certainly possible considering there were only several hundred students at the school at the time. In 1937, Irvin left St. Francis and moved to attend the Haskell Indian Boarding School in Lawrence, Kansas, 522 miles away from Parmelee and his family. Haskell had one of two “all-Indian” college basketball teams in the United States in 1940. In February, Haskell played the other “all-Indian” team, the Bacone Warriors. Even though Haskell lost 43 to 39, it was not without a threat “led by Irvin Littlethunder.”[10] In January of 1940, Haskell played a non-Native team—the Iola “Red Devils”—who beat Haskell 43-34. The local newspaper ran the story with the inflammatory headline “Indians Scalped.”[11]

Zouie Kills the Enemy at Pearl Harbor in June, 1945, after she reported for duty with other WAVES to the Hawaiian Islands. Photograph courtesy of The Sunday Argus Leader, Newspapers.com. — Zouie Kills the Enemy at Pearl Harbor in June, 1945, after she reported for duty with other WAVES to the Hawaiian Islands. Photograph courtesy of *The Sunday Argus Leader, Newspapers.com.*

“Kill the Indian, save the man,” was the explicit aim of religious and federal boarding schools. Though many presented their missions as benevolent, boarding schools like St. Francis and Haskell were designed to assimilate Native youth into white cultural norms to prevent the possibility of passing down indigenous culture and identity to the next generation.[12] Assaults on tribal identity included cutting hair, replacing indigenous names, prohibiting indigenous languages, forced conversion to Christianity, and breaking family ties. Cultural erasure and assimilation were enforced through harsh discipline, and in many cases, outright abuse. Instances of physical, emotional, and sexual abuse were prevalent and well documented throughout the boarding school era.[13]

While Irvin and Zouie finished their time at schools designed to erase their Sioux identities, the Second World War was heating up. It was disproportionately common for Native Americans to join the ranks of the United States military, particularly during World War II. Native communities have one of the highest rates of military participation, and simultaneously, carry historical trauma of being killed, colonized, betrayed, erased, and assimilated by the same nation they represent at war. Native participation in war efforts thus expanded the definition of patriotism and what it meant to be American.

Like many other Native young adults, both Irvin and Zouie matriculated from one institution, Indian boarding schools, to another, the U.S. military. Both hinged on a narrow “American” identity. Just after he graduated, Irvin joined the Army Air Corps as a waist gunner in a B-29[14] on May 1, 1941,[15] earning the rank of Staff Sergeant by the time he received an honorable discharge on December 7, 1945. As a waist gunner, Irvin was quite at risk, and, in April of 1942, he was injured in the line of duty. He was admitted for medical care at Camp Pine, New York but returned to active duty military service through the end of World War II.[16] Zouie joined the ranks of the U.S. military as a part of the Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES) as a Seaman 1st Class in the Navy on January 6, 1944.[17] Implemented in 1942, the highly successful WAVES program proved that mixed-gender military forces were effective.[18] In 1945, Zouie was stationed in the Hawaiian Islands at Pearl Harbor alongside several other South Dakotan Women.[19] Zouie was discharged January 12, 1946, when she returned back to the community at the Rosebud Reservation.[20]

Present-day Igloo, South Dakota munitions storage structures. Photo courtesy of https://www.coldwartourist.com/black-hills-ordnance-depot.

Zouie and Irvin got married sometime after they each returned to Rosebud. Together, they moved about 200 miles West to Igloo, South Dakota. It was better known at the time as the Black Hills Ordinance Depot (BHOD), a military base that attracted many to move for job opportunities as the lasting impact of the Great Depression and war continued to ravage the economies of the northern plains.[21] By 1945, over 160 Native people were working at the BHOD.[22] All workers at BHOD lived in federally-funded residential housing because of the remote location, and Igloo is now remembered as a unique space for racial and gender coexistence. Women workers were abundant; Native, Black, Italian Prisoners of War, and white families lived and worked side-by-side.[23] At Igloo, Irvin was a painter, a career that he would stay in until retirement.[24]

Zouie and Irvin didn’t stay in Igloo long, however—they soon moved to Rapid City where Irvin continued work as a painter and they began having children.[25] As they raised their family, both Irvin and Zouie may have struggled with symptoms of alcoholism that became common in Native communities as a response to historical, intergenerational trauma. In 1948, Irvin and Zouie were living in Veterans Housing in Rapid City when Irvin pled guilty to charges of driving while intoxicated. He was fined $150 and couldn’t drive in the state for at least one year.[26] In 1950, Irvin and two other Rosebud men were arrested by a U.S. Marshall for theft of government property on the Reservation: six gallons of anti-freeze, a battery, and three gallons of gas.[27] They were held at the Minnehaha county jail; none could pay the $500-each bond.[28] All three ended up pleading guilty and were put on probation for one year. The next month, Irvin was charged with intoxication again and paid a $15 fine.[29] In 1952, Irvin was again charged with drunk driving, but this time, he sought out a lawyer while awaiting trial under a $300 bond.[30] Irvin’s persistence paid off and his case was dismissed “because of lack of prosecution by the complaining witness.”[31] In 1955, both Irvin and Zouie were charged with intoxication; Irvin spent five days in jail and paid $35. Zouie had to pay $25 and was suspended from driving for 10 days “on condition she take care of her children.”[32] Irvin and Zouie’s records of substance use may be representative of imposed historical experiences. Massacre, war, displacement, child-separation and abuse, assimilation, prohibition of cultural mourning practices, and much more that has been carried down across generations, have exacerbated risk of substance abuse in Native communities.[33]

After 1963 the Little Thunders packed up again and moved to Denver, Colorado. They spent the late 60s and 70s there, where Irvin continued to work as a painter and they had more children.[34] Together, they raised Eileen, Mary, Marlene, Theresa, Sharon, Reginald, and Rita. Zouie passed away at 54 years old in 1978; she was interred at Fort Logan National Cemetery on August 2, 1978. Following his wife’s death, Irvin moved back to Rosebud where he retired from his decades-long career as a painter.[35] He spent his last several years there with family and friends, until he was diagnosed with esophageal cancer and went for treatment at the Denver VA hospital.[36] He passed away from cancer and was interred to rest at Fort Logan right next to Zouie on November 26, 1986.[37]

Irvin and Zouie Little Thunder share the story of so many 20th century Native children who were subject to cultural erasure, abuse, and distance from families so key to their resilience. They share the story of entering the U.S. military while experiencing unequal freedom and citizenship, fighting for the country that so often fought their existence. Irvin and Zouie’s life histories are representative of an ever-expanding American identity, one that includes the rich Native veteran legacies that continue to expand the definition of service and patriotism today.

Footnotes ↓

[1] Etta Little Thunder, “These Seeds Grew into Strong Stalks,” Rapid City Journal, March 28, 1992, pg. 4, https://www.newspapers.com/image/527675699/?terms=%22Lydia%20Little%20Thunder%22&match=1.

[2] “U.S., Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940 for Irvin S Little Thunder,” database, ancestry.com, accessed August 4, 2021.

[4] “U.S., Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940,” entry for Lucy Kills the Enemy, database, ancestry.com, accessed August 20, 2021.

[5] St. Francis Mission School Rolls, entry for Irwin Little Thunder, Milwaukee: Marquette University Special Collections and University Archives, 1931, accessed August 9, 2021.

[6] Ibid.

[7] “U.S., Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940,” entry for Zoe Kills the Enemy, database, ancestry.com, accessed August 4, 2021.

[8] St. Francis Mission School Rolls, entry for Zouie Kills Enemy, Milwaukee: Marquette University Special Collections and University Archives, 1928, accessed August 9, 2021.

[9] Ibid.

[10] “All-Indian Colleges Meet, Bacone Wins,” Blackwell Daily Journal, February 11, 1940, pg.5, https://www.newspapers.com/image/603914721/?terms=%22Irvin%20Littlethunder%22&match=1.

[11] “Indians Scalped,” The Iola Register, January 13, 1940, pg.6, https://www.newspapers.com/image/636229590/?terms=%22Littlethunder%22&match=1.

[12] “History and Culture: Boarding Schools,” Native American History and Culture: Boarding Schools - American Indian Relief Council is now Northern Plains Reservation Aid, Northern Plains Reservation Aid, accessed August 31, 2021, http://www.nativepartnership.org/site/PageServer?pagename=airc_hist_boardingschools.

[13] Ibid.

[14] “Irvin Little Thunder,” Rapid City Journal, December 3, 1986, pg.22, https://www.newspapers.com/image/351976942/?terms=%22Irvin%20Little%20Thunder%22&match=1.

[15] “U.S., Department of Veteran Affairs BIRLS Death File, 1850-2010, entry for Irvin S Littlethunder, database, ancestry.com, accessed August 4, 2021.

[16] “U.S., World War II Hospital Admission Card Files, 1942-1954,” entry for Irvin S Littlethunder, database, ancestry.com, accessed August 4, 2021.

[17] “U.S., Veteran’s Gravesites, ca.1775-2019,” entry for Zouie Little Thunder, database, ancestry.com, accessed August 6, 2021.

[18] “WAVES,” Waves, Online Highways, accessed August 31, 2021, https://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1708.html.

[19] “Pearl Harbor, T.H.,” Argus-Leader, June 24, 1945, pg.9, https://www.newspapers.com/image/229511309/?terms=%22Zouie%20Kills%20enemy%22&match=1.

[20] “U.S., Veteran’s Gravesites, ca.1775-2019,” entry for Zouie Little Thunder, database, ancestry.com, accessed August 6, 2021.

[21] Jerry Lanphear and Jim Anderson, “Remembering Black Hills Ordinance Depot; Igloo, South Dakota,” BHAD, December 26, 2011, http://www.bhodian.com/LAindex.html.

[22] Ibid.

[23] Ibid.

[24] “Irvin Little Thunder,” Rapid City Journal, December 3, 1986, pg.22, https://www.newspapers.com/image/351976942/?terms=%22Irvin%20Little%20Thunder%22&match=1.

[25] “U.S., City Directories, 1822-1995,” entry for Zouie Little, database, ancestry.com, accessed August 15, 2021.

[26] “Drunk Driver Fined $150,” Rapid City Journal, February 2, 1948, pg.4, https://www.newspapers.com/image/350668385/?terms=%22Irvin%20Little%20Thunder%22&match=1.

[27] “Three Placed on Probation,” Argus- Leader, April 27, 1950, pg.5, https://www.newspapers.com/image/230170863/?terms=%22Irvin%20Little%20Thunder%22&match=1.

[28] “Parole Violator, Three Rosebud Men Arrested,” Rapid City Journal, April 1, 1950, pg.2, https://www.newspapers.com/image/350483779/?terms=%22Irvin%20Little%20Thunder%22&match=1.

[29] “Six Drunk Driving Cases before Judge,” Rapid City Journal, May 22, 1950.

[30] “Stayed Too Long, Pays Fine of $20,” Rapid City Journal, March 14, 1952, pg.4, https://www.newspapers.com/image/350479273/?terms=%22Irvin%20Little%20Thunder%22&match=1.

[31] “Crime at Minimum for Past 24 Hours,” Rapid City Journal, June 25, 1952, pg.3, https://www.newspapers.com/image/351259640/?terms=%22Irvin%20Little%20Thunder%22&match=1.

[32] “Driving Minus Permit Revokes Suspension,” Rapid City Journal, July 25, 1955, pg.3, https://www.newspapers.com/image/351483309/?terms=%22Ervin%20Little%20Thunder%22&match=1.

[33] Maria Yellow Heart, “The Historical Trauma Response among Natives and Its Relationship with Substance Abuse: A Lakota Illustration,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 35, no. 1 (2003): 7–13, https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2003.10399988.

[34] “U.S., City Directories, 1822-1995,” entry for Zonie Little, database, ancestry.com, accessed August 17, 2021.

[35] “Irvin Little Thunder,” Rapid City Journal, December 3, 1986, pg.22, https://www.newspapers.com/image/351976942/?terms=%22Irvin%20Little%20Thunder%22&match=1.